چهره‌های جدید فاشیسم (پوپولیسم و راست افراطی)
بخش هفتم؛ تاریخ در زمان حال – ایدئولوژی و انقلاب

۱- Zeev Sternhell
۲- Hobbes
۳- Sternhell, ‘Le concept de fascisme’, in Naissance de l’idéologie fasciste, 28– 29.
۴- Zeev Sternhell, Les anti-Lumières. Du XVIIIe siècle à la guerre froide, Paris: Fayard, 2006, 578, 52 (translated by David Maisel, The Anti-Enlightenment Tradition, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009).
۵- Sternhell, ‘Morphologie et historiographie du fascisme’, 50.

۷- Zeev Sternhell, La droite révolutionnaire. Les origines françaises du fascisme 1885– 1914, Paris: Folio-Gallimard, 1997, original edition 1978.
۸- Maurice Barrès
۹- Zeev Sternhell, Maurice Barrès et le nationalisme français, Brussels: Complexe, 1985, 384.
۱۰- Georges Sorel
۱۱- Gustave Le Bon
۱۲- Bergson
۱۳- Pareto
۱۴- Zeev Sternhell, ‘Le concept de fascisme’, in Naissance de l’idéologie fasciste, 65.

۱۶- Zeev Sternhell, ‘La droite révolutionnaire: Entre les anti-Lumières et le fascisme’, preface to the new edition of La droite révolutionnaire, x. Albeit in a more problematic way, a similar thesis was defended by Robert Soucy, French Fascism: The First Wave 1924– 1933, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986; French Fascism: The Second Wave 1933– 1939, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995. See also his reconstruction of the ‘Sternhell controversy’ in the second volume, 8– 12.

۱۸- Pierre Drieu La Rochelle
۱۹- Robert Brasillach
۲۰- Sternhell, Ni droite ni gauche.
۲۱- Populaire Français
۲۲- Chemises Vertes
۲۳- teleology
۲۴- See Robert Wohl, ‘French Fascism: Both Right and Left: Reflections on the Sternhell Controversy’, Journal of Modern History 63: 1, 1991, 91– 98, in particular 95. On this debate, see António Costa Pinto, ‘Fascist Ideology Revisited: Zeev Sternhell and his Critics’, European History Quarterly 16: 4, 1986, 465– 83.
۲۵- Sternhell, ‘Morphologie et historiographie du fascisme en France’, 46.
۲۶- Gentile, Fascismo, 45.
۲۷- Ibid., 276– 78.

۳۰- Benito Mussolini, ‘Trincerocrazia’, Opera omnia, Firenze: La Fenice, 1951, vol. 10, 140– 43.
۳۱- Francesco Germinario, ‘Fascisme et idéologie fasciste. Problèmes historiographiques et méthodologiques dans le modèle de Sternhell, Revue française des idées politiques 1, 1995, 39– 78, in particular 63.
۳۲- Sergio Panunzio
۳۳- Enrico Corradino
۳۴- Alfredo Rocco

۳۶- Giovanni Gentile
۳۷- Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
۳۸- Gentile, Fascismo, 278– 79.

۴۱- Germinario, ‘Fascisme et idéologie fasciste’, 54.
۴۲- Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, New York: Knopf, 2004, ch. 4.
۴۳- See Mark Neocleous, Fascism, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1997, ch. iii– iv, 38– 74.
۴۴- See Ernst Nolte, Der europaïsche Bürgerkrieg. Nationalsozialismus und Bolschewismus 1917– 1945, Berlin: Ullstein, 1987. This thesis was implicitly defended in Nolte’s first book (which included the Action Française among the fascist movements), Three Faces of Fascism, New York: Holt, R & W, 1966. In a review of this book, Mosse stressed that fascism could not be reduced to a simple form of anti-Marxist political reaction because ‘fascism did not abolish but instead displaced the revolutionary urge of its epoch’; see Mosse, ‘E. Nolte on Three Faces of Fascism’, Journal of the History of Ideas 27: 4, 1966, 624.
۴۵- Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, ch. 5.
۴۶- Philippe Burrin, ‘Le fascisme: la révolution sans révolutionnaires’, Le Débat 38, 1986.
۴۷- Isaiah Berlin
۴۸- Joseph de Maistre
۴۹- Isaiah Berlin, ‘Joseph de Maistre and the Origins of Fascism’, The Crooked Timber of Humanity: Chapters in the History of Ideas, London: John Murray, 1990.
۵۰- Jacob L. Talmon
۵۱- Zeev Sternhell, ‘Fascism’, in International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus, ed. Roger Griffin, London: Arnold, 1998, 34.
۵۲- Gentile, Fascismo, 272. See also Emilio Gentile, The Italian Road to Totalitarianism, New York: Frank Cass, 2006.
۵۳- Nicola Tranfaglia, La prima guerra mondiale e il fascismo, Turin: UTET, 1995, 635. This observation was already made by Alberto Aquarone, L’organizzazione dello Stato totalitario, Turin: Einaudi, 1965, as well as by De Felice, Mussolini il Duce: II. Lo Stato totalitario 1936– 1940, Turin: Einaudi, 1981, ch.
1, 3– 155. On the ambiguities of De Felice’s definition of fascist totalitarianism, see Emilio Gentile, Renzo De Felice, 104– 11.
۵۴- Renzo De Felice, ‘Introduzione’, Le interpretazioni del fascismo, xvi.
۵۵- The concept of ‘policracy’ was applied to Italian fascism by Tranfaglia, La prima guerra mondiale e il fascismo, 498.
۵۶- Robert O. Paxton
۵۷- Robert O. Paxton, Vichy: Old Guard and New Order 1940– 1944, New York: Knopf, 1972, ch. 2.

۵۹- See Michel Winock, ed., Histoire de l’extrême droite en France, Paris: Seuil, 1993, 11– 12.

۶۱- Ismael Saz Campos, Los nacionalismos franquistas, Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2003, 369.
۶۲- Antonescu
۶۳- See Ian Campbell, The Addis Ababa Massacre: Italy’s National Shame, New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. On the historiographic repression of fascist violence, see Ruth Ben-Ghiat, ‘A Lesser Evil? Italian Fascism and the Totalitarian Equation’, in The Lesser Evil: Moral Approaches to Genocide Practices in a Comparative Perspective, eds Helmut Dubiel and Gabriel Motzkin, New York: Frank Cass, 2004, and Filippo Focardi, ‘“ Bravo italiano” e “cattivo Tedesco”: riflessioni sulla genesi di due immagini incrociate’, Storia e memoria 1, 1996, 55– 83. The violence of fascism takes a very small place in the huge biography of Mussolini by Renzo De Felice.
۶۴- I analysed this aspect in The Origins of Nazi Violence, New York: The New Press, 2003.
۶۵- See Julián Casanova, ed., Morir, matar, sobrevivir. La violencia en la dictadura de Franco, Barcelona: Críıtica, 2002; Carme Molinero, Margarida Sala, and Jaume Sobrequés, eds, Una inmensa prisión. Los campos de concentración y las prisiones durante la guerra civil y el franquismo, Barcelona: Críıtica, 2003.
۶۶- Steven E. Aschheim
۶۷- Steven Aschheim, ‘Introduction’, What History Tells, 6. During a conference, Mosse stressed the uniqueness of the Holocaust, writing that the extermination of the Jews by the Nazism was incomparable to traditional pogroms. ‘The Holocaust,’ he wrote, ‘does not have analogies in History’. Quoted by Gentile, Il fascino del persecutore, 137. Nevertheless, he did not develop this approach and it remains an isolated assessment in his work.
۶۸- Mosse, Confronting History, 219.

۷۰- Mosse, The Fascist Revolution, 40– 41.

۷۲- Compare with the interview with Renzo De Felice in Jader Jacobelli, ed., Il fascismo e gli storici oggi, Rome: Laterza, 1988, 6.
۷۳- Gentile, ‘A Provisional Dwelling’, What History Tells, 102.

۷۵- Sternhell, ‘Le concept de fascisme’, Naissance de l’idéologie fasciste, 19– 20.
۷۶- Renzo De Felice, Intervista sul fascismo, Rome: Laterza, 2001, 105– 106.
۷۷- Philippe Burrin, ‘Le champ magnétique des fascismes’, Fascisme, nazisme, autoritarisme, Paris: Seuil, Paris, 2000, 211– 46.

۷۹- 94 See Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1979, original 1951), 186, 216, 221. Emilio Gentile recently wrote a long critical analysis of Arendt’s work on totalitarianism in which both imperialism and colonialism are almost completely ignored: ‘Le silence de Hannah Arendt: L’interprétation du fascisme dans Les Origines du totalitarisme’, Revue d’Histoire
Moderne et Contemporaine, 55/ 3 (2008), 11– 34. On the controversial relationship between postcolonial and Holocaust studies, see A. Dirk Moses, ‘Conceptual blockages and definitional dilemmas in the “racial century”: genocides of indigenous peoples and the Holocaust,’ Patterns of Prejudice, 36/ 4 (2002), 7– 36, and ‘Revisiting a Founding Assumption of Genocide Studies’, Genocide Studies and Prevention, 6/ 3 (2011), 287– 300.

۸۱- Cited in Aschheim, ‘George L. Mosse at 80’, 301.