چهره‌های جدید فاشیسم (پوپولیسم و راست افراطی)
ششم؛ تاریخ در زمان حال - تفسیر فاشیسم

۲- George L. Mosse
۳- Zeev Sternhell
۴- Emilio Gentile
۵- George L. Mosse, Confronting History: A Memoir, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2000.
۶- Emilio Gentile pertinently stressed that in Mosse’s work autobiography and historiography are fruitfully interwoven: see Emilio Gentile, Il fascino del persecutore: George L. Mosse e la catastrofe dell’uomo moderno, Rome: Carocci, 2007, 24. For a general, well-informed, and lucid reconstitution of Mosse’s intellectual itinerary, see Karel Plessini, The Perils of Normalcy: George L. Mosse and the Remaking of Cultural History, Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2014.
۷- Sternhell
۸- Gentile
۰۹- On Sternhell’s intellectual trajectory, see his interesting ‘autobiographical’ interview: Zeev Sternhell, Histoire et Lumières: Entretiens avec Nicolas Weil, Paris: Albin Michel, 2014. For a critical portrait of Sternhell as a historian of ideas, see Enzo Traverso, ‘Illuminismo e anti-illuminismo: La storia delle idee di Zeev Sternhell’, Storiografia 18, 2014, 219– 30.
۱۰- Renzo De Felice
۱۱- Emilio Gentile, Renzo De Felice. Lo storico e il personaggio, Rome: Laterza, 2003.
۱۲- il Duce این لقبی بود که موسولینی به خود داده بود. یعنی رهبر به زبان ایتالیائی ( مترجم)
۱۳- Gentile recognizes that his ‘biggest debt’ is to Mosse. See Emilio Gentile, Il culto del Littorio. La sacralizzazione della politica nell’Italia fascista, Rome: Laterza, 1993, xi (English trans. The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).

۱۵- Renzo De Felice, ‘Prefazione’, Le interpretazioni del fascismo, Rome: Laterza, 1995, vii– xxv. This mention of Mosse in a 1988 preface is not included in the English translation Interpretations of Fascism, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977. See also Renzo De Felice’s introduction to the Italian translation of Mosse’s La nazionalizzazione delle masse. Simbolismo politico e movimenti di massa in Germania 1815– 1933, Bologna: il Mulino, 1975, 7– 18.
۱۶- On the French reception of Mosse’s works, see Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, ‘George L. Mosse. Réflexions sur une méconnaissance française,’ Annales 1, 2001, 1183– 86.
۱۷- George L. Mosse, ‘Renzo De Felice e il revisionismo storico’, Nuova Antologia 2206, 1998, 177– 86, especially 185. See Mosse’s correspondence with De Felice, quoted in Gentile, Il fascino del persecutore, 111.
۱۸- Pier Giorgio Zunino
۱۹- Emilio Gentile
۲۰- Zeev Sternhell, ‘Morphologie et historiographie du fascisme en France’, Ni droite ni gauche. L’idéologie fasciste en France, Paris: Fayard, 2000, 49.
۲۱- Emilio Gentile, Il fascismo. Storia e interpretazione, Rome: Laterza, 2002, 95.
۲۲- George L. Mosse, The Fascist Revolution: Toward a General Theory of Fascism, New York: Howard Fertig, 1999, 42; Zeev Sternhell, ‘Le concept de fascisme’, in Naissance de l’idéologie fasciste, eds Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri, Paris: Folio-Gallimard, 1994, 23– 24. (English trans. The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
۲۳- Zeev Sternhell, Ni droite ni gauche. L’idéologie fasciste en France, Paris: Seuil, 1983, 273– 74 (English trans. Neither Right Nor Left: The Fascist Ideology in France, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). A. James Gregor, for whom fascism was the ‘true revolution’ of the twentieth century, elaborated the most radical version of this interpretation: The Fascist Persuasion in Radical Politics, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974.
۲۴- Norberto Bobbi
۲۵- Norberto Bobbio, ‘L’ideologia del fascismo’, Dal fascismo alla democrazia. I regimi, le ideologie, le figure e le culture politiche, Milan: Baldini & Castoldi, 1997, 61– 98.

۲۸- George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality: Respectability and Abnormal Sexuality in Modern Europe, New York: Howard Fertig, 1985, ch. 7; George L. Mosse, The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity, New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, ch. 8.
۲۹- George L. Mosse, Nationalism and Sexuality: Respectability and Abnormal Sexuality in Modern Europe, New York: Howard Fertig, 1985, ch. 7; George L. Mosse, The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity, New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, ch. 8.
۳۰- Johann Winckelmann
۳۱- Mosse, The Fascist Revolution, ch. 10, 188.
۳۲- Pierre Drieu La Rochelle
۳۳- Robert Brasillach
۳۴- Julius Evola
۳۵- Ernst Jünger
۳۶- Ibid., ch. 9, 175– 82.
۳۷- George L. Mosse, ‘Bookburning and Betrayal by the German Intellectuals’, Confronting the Nation: Jewish and Western Nationalism, Hannover: Brandeis University Press, 1993, 111.
۳۸- See Saul Friedlander, ‘Mosse’s Influence on the Historiography of the Holocaust’, in What History Tells: George L. Mosse and the Culture of Modern Europe, eds Stanley G. Payne, David Jan Sorkin, and John S. Tortorice, Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2004, 144– 45.
۳۹- See Emilio Gentile, ‘A Provisional Dwelling: The Origin and Development of the Concept of Fascism in Mosse’s Historiography’, in What History Tells, 101.

۴۱- Ibid.
۴۲- Gentile, Il Fascismo, ch. 11, 265– 306.
۴۳- George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars, New York: Oxford University Press, 1990, ch. 7– 8, 126– 80.
۴۴- Ibid., ch. 1; Mosse, The Fascist Revolution, xvii– xviii, 45.
۴۵- Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses, and Mosse, The Fascist Revolution, 7.
۴۶- Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses, ch. 7.
۴۷- Eric Voegelin
۴۸- Raymond Aron
۴۹- Eric Voegelin, Die politische Religionen, Munich: Fink, 1996; Raymond Aron, ‘L’avenir des religions séculières’, Chroniques de guerre. La France libre 1940– 1945, Paris: Gallimard, 1990, 925– 48. On this concept, see in particular Emilio Gentile, Politics as Religion, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006.

۵۳- Gentile, Il culto del littorio, 43, 47, 53.
۵۴- ​​Mussolini defined fascism as ‘a religious conception’; see Benito Mussolini [and Giovanni Gentile], ‘La dottrina del fascismo’, Il fascismo nella Treccani, Milano: Terziaria, 1997, 3; see also Gentile, Il culto del littorio, 103.
۵۵- Quoted in Emilio Gentile, Il culto del littorio, 95.
۵۶- Jean-Pierre Sironneau
۵۷- Gentile, Fascismo, 208. He referred to Jean-Pierre Sironneau, Sécularisation et religions politiques, The Hague: Mouton, 1982.
۵۸- Walter Benjamin
۵۹- Walter Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’, in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt, New York: Schocken Books, 1968, 217– 52. Mosse adopts this definition suggested by Benjamin in his own book The Nationalization of the Masses, ch. 2.
۶۰- Gentile, Fascismo, 284– 85.
۶۱- Siegfried Kracauer
۶۲- Siegfried Kracauer, ‘Masse und Propagande’, in Siegfried Kracauer 1889– 1966, eds Ingrid Belke and Irina Renz, Marbach am Neckar: Deutsche Schillergesellschaft, 1989, 88. See also Peter Reichel, Der schöne Schein des Dritten Reiches, Munich: Hanser, 1991). On this aspect, see also Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
۶۳- Sergio Luzzatto, ‘The Political Culture of Fascist Italy’, Contemporary European History 8: 2, 1999, 317– 34.
Enzo Traverso. the-new-faces-of-fascism_for_said-mehraghdam (Kindle Locations 2954-2955). Kindle Edition.
۶۴- Jacob L. Talmon
۶۵- François Furet
۶۶- acob L. Talmon, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy, London: Secker & Warburg, 1952, and François Furet, The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
۶۷- George L. Mosse, Intervista sul nazismo, Rome: Laterza, 1977, 77.
۶۸- Mosse, ‘Political Style and Political Theory: Totalitarian Democracy Revisited’, in Confronting the Nation, 60– 69, especially 65.
۶۹- Gentile, Fascismo, 57.
۷۰- Zeev Sternhell, ‘Le fascisme, ce mal du siècle’, in Le mythe de l’allergie française au fascisme, ed. Michel Dobry, Paris: Albin Michel, 2003, 405.
۷۱- Sternhell, ‘Morphologie et historiographie du fascisme en France’, 106.
۷۲- Ernst Cassirer
۷۳- Aby Warburg
۷۴- Ernst Kantorowicz
۷۵- Ibid.

۷۷- George L. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich, New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964.
۷۸- Steven E. Aschheim, ‘George L. Mosse at 80: A Critical Laudatio’, Journal of Contemporary History 34: 2, 1999, 295– 312, especially 298.
۷۹- On the German Sonderweg debate, see Davis Blackburn and Geoff Eley, The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth Century Germany, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984.
۸۰- George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism, New York: Howard Fertig, 1978, ch. 1. On this aspect, see Aschheim, ‘George L. Mosse at 80’, 308.
۸۱- George L. Mosse, ‘Jewish Emancipation: Between Bildung and Respectability’, Confronting the Nation, 131– 45.
۸۲- Jay Winter, ‘De l’histoire intellectuelle à l’histoire culturelle: la contribution de George L. Mosse’, Annales 56: 1, 2001, 177– 81. That was one of the essential critiques directed by Sternhell against Mosse (the other concerns the genesis of fascism: see his review of Mosse’s The Fascist Revolution, in The American Historical Review 105: 3, 2000, 882– 83).