§ Blunt Instrument - Sanctions Don’t Promote Democratic Change
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[1] Gary Clyde Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott, and Kimberly Ann Elliott, Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy (Washington, D.C.: Institute of International Education, 1990). The most recent edition of the study claims to reflect revisions from applicable critiques of earlier work, yet maintains sanctions’ success in nine cases that were disputed as military conquests and two cases of U.S. sponsored coups. Furthermore, the revised edition upholds the same success rate of sanctions despite removing twenty disputed cases and statistically indicating that economic sanctions cases imposed after 1989 were less successful in achieving policy objectives than prior cases, suggesting the diminishing effectiveness of the tool.
[2] R.A. Pape, Presentation given in the U.S. Senate for National Iranian American Council (Washington, D.C., October 4, 2011).
[3] David J. Lektzian and Christopher M. Sprecher, “Sanctions, Signals, and Militarized conflict,” American Journal of Political Science 51 (2007):415–431.
[4] T. Clifton Morgan, Navin Bapat, and Valentin Krustev, “The Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions, 1971–2000,” Conflict Management and Peace Science 26 (2009): 92–110.
[5] Morgan, Bapat, and Krustev, “The Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions, 1971–2000,” 92–110.
[6] Joseph G. Gavin III, “Economic Sanctions: Foreign Policy Levers orSignals?,” Cato Policy Analysis 124 (1989).
[7] Eric E. Schmitt, “U.S.Backed on Possible Invasion of Haiti,”New York Times, August 31, 1994, A8.
[8] The 35 states that transitioned to democracy include Argentina, Benin, Brazil, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Chile, Columbia, Croatia, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guyana, Hungary, Indonesia, Kosovo, Lesotho, Mali, Mexico, Mongolia, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Ukraine, and Uruguay. Jay Ulfelder and Michael Lustik, “Modeling Transitions to and from Democracy,” Democratization 14 (2007): 351–387.
[9] Mats Lundahl, “Economic Effects of a Trade and Investment Boycott Against South Africa, ”The Scandinavian Journal of Economics 86 (1984): 68–83.
[10] Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Columbia, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Indonesia, Lesotho, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Ukraine, and Uruguay had endured limited economic sanctions.
[11] James H. Fowler, “The United States and South Korean Democratization, ”Political Science Quarterly 114 (1999): 265.
[12] Samuel Chavkin, “Uruguay Under Civilian Rule: The Rough Road Back to Democracy,” The Nation 242 (1986):199–202.
[13] Morgan, Bapat, and Krustev, “The Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions, 1971–2000,” 92–110.
[14] Donald G. McNeil, Jr., “Romania’s Revolution of 1989: An Enduring Enigma,” New York Times, December 31, 1999: A4.
[15] Johan Galtung, “On the Effects of International Economic Sanctions: With Examples from the Case of Rhodesia, ”World Politics 19 (1967): 378–416.
[16] D.W. Drezner. An analytically eclectic approach to sanctions and nonproliferation in Etel Soligen, ed., Sanctions, Statecraft, and Nuclear Proliferation (New York: Cambridge UP, 2012).
[17] David Lektzian and Mark Souva, “An International Theory of Sanctions Onset and Success,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 51 (2007): 848.
[18] Ronald Wintrobe, “The Tinpot and the Totalitarian: An Economic Theory of Dictatorship,” The American Political Science Review 84 (1990): 849.
[19] Richard N. Haass, “Sanctioning Madness,” Foreign Affairs 76 (1997): 78–81.
[20] Daniel Byman and Matthew Waxman, The Dynamics of Coercion: American Foreign Policy and the Limits of Military Might (New York: Cambridge UP,2002).
[21] Daniel Byman and Jennifer Lind, “Pyongyang’s Survival Strategy: Tools of Authoritarian Control in North Korea,” International Security 35 (2010): 44–74.
[22] D.W. Drezner. An analytically eclectic approach to sanctions and nonproliferation in Soligen, ed., Sanctions, Statecraft, and Nuclear Proliferation (New York: Cambridge UP, 2012).
[23] Authoritarian and hybrid regimes based on the The Economist Intelligence Unit’s “Democracy Index 2010”: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Bhutan, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burkina Faso, Burma, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, China, Comoros, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Cuba, Djibouti, Ecuador, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gabon, Gambia, Georgia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Honduras, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Lebanon, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Morocco, Mozambique, Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Russia, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Togo, Turkey, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Based on sanctions listed in Appendix 1A of Hufbauer, Schott, and Elliott, Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bolivia, Burma, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Central African Republic, China, Democratic Republic of Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gabon, Gambia, Georgia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Laos, Lebanon, Liberia, Libya, Malawi, Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Togo, Turkey, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia, and Zimbabwe all endured economic sanctions.
[24] Ulfelder and Lustik, “Modeling transitions to and from democracy.” 351–87.
[25] Based on the The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Index of Democracy 2010Fully democratic and flawed democracies: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cape Verde, Chile, Columbia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Dominican Republic, East Timor, El Salvador, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guyana, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Kosovo, Latvia, Lesotho, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malaysia, Mali, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Namibia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Ukraine, United Kingdom, United States and Uruguay. Based on the The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Index of Democracy 2010, Ulfelder (2007), and Appendix 1A of Hufbauer et.al. (1990), Argentina, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Columbia, Croatia, Czechoslovakia, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guyana, Indonesia, Kosovo, Lesotho, Mali, Mexico, Mongolia, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Ukraine and Uruguay transitioned to democracy without the use of broad economic sanctions. South Africa was the only state that endured broad economic sanctions and still transitioned to democracy.